Critical Thinking And Education Philosophy Essay

Critical Thinking And Education Philosophy Essay After providing a conceptual foundation of pragmatism, rationality, objectivity, and the goals of education, a discussion of critical thinking is made to present a concept of critical thinking which is 1) normative; 2) comprising of skill, ability, and habits of mind; and 3) acquiring intellectual resources. To address the vagueness of the concept itself, this review lends itself to the work of Israel Scheffler and Harvey Siegel, in order to provide a defensible proposal on how critical thinking can be infused within the educational curriculum. Critical thinking as an educational aim The current interest placed on critical thinking in the education context is well-founded. Citing Scheffler, Combs (2009) stated that education should be centrally concerned with developing rationality, reasonableness, and critical thought (p. 175). Moreover, Siegel (1988) provided the underlying principles on why critical thinking must be emphasized in youth education. First, because the youth make up the crop of tomorrows leaders, the education system must enable them to develop critical thinking as a tool towards a productive and rewarding life. Second, the development of critical thinking is viewed as a moral obligation of administrators and teachers to instill in students the ability to treat diverse views with respect and foster a climate of open-mindedness. Siegel thought that preventing students to critically think was a form of oppression. Third, the thrust of critical thinking is consistent with the belief that rationality is key towards a productive life for all. Fourth, i n line with Deweys thoughts on pragmatism, critical thinking is a crucial element of democratic citizenship. Scheffler further describes critical thinking as an educational ideal which would allow children to assess their beliefs, desires, actions, and their cognitive and non-cognitive emotions based on appropriate criteria or standards and good reason, and engaged them in the critical dialogues that relate to every area of civilization (Scheffler, 1991, p. 64). Education should not only be aimed at the development of critical abilities, but also at the development of the cognitive emotions and virtues, the critical attitude (Scheffler, 1991). Every educator must endeavor to ensure that all children blossom into critical thinkers. Critical thinking is significant to the ethics, epistemology, content, and manner of education (Siegel, 1988). Its ramifications are broad in scope and pose serious implications to society at large, not only to persons being educated. The key aspects of critical thinking include rational virtues (skills and dispositions to judge in an impartial manner) and to deli berate with objectivity, even disregarding self-interest in the process. These elements are indispensable to moral education (Scheffler, 1973). In science education, critical thinking ability helps students evaluate the strength of reasons and the defensibility of arguments in order to evaluate which among competing paradigms or theories is best. Critical thinking is also an indispensable aspect of the practical component of education. The skills and know-how of students which figure prominently into the curriculum require critical thinking. Reading, spelling, and mathematics do not only require processual skills but the ability to apply criteria or good reasoning to specific domains of inquiry. While operative principles may be taught, students need critical thought to practice these skills effectively. Furthermore, in the context of teaching, critical thinking is reinforced by a teachers critical spirit considered a principal obligation (Scheffler, 1973). In the context of teachi ng, good teaching requires educators to develop in students the skills and attitudes as described in the two-component theory of critical thinking which will be discussed later (Siegel, 1988). Critical thinking: a normative concept That critical thinking is a normative concept means that it is an educational ideal a goal that educators and administrators must strive to aim. It also means that critical thinking is considered generally relevant in the educational realm. As an educational ideal, critical thinking is helpful in organizing the educational enterprise as well as set objectives of educational efforts. Mainly, critical thinking as a normative concept addresses the questions of 1) the purpose of education, and 2) the manner of education. Our basic concept of critical thinking is essentially a normative notion, i.e. that critical thinking is in some sense good thinking. It is the quality of the thinking, not the processes of thinking, which distinguishes critical from uncritical thinking. In addition to deciding how to describe critical thinking activities and standards, we need to decide the boundaries of critical thinking, i.e. what sorts of tasks we see critical thinking as encompassing. Critical thinking is sometimes contrasted with problem solving, decision making, issue analysis and inquiry. Terms such as `problem solving and `decision making designate rather general kinds of thinking tasks. But, carrying out these tasks typically requires one to make a number of judgments, and the thinking that leads to these judgments can either fulfill relevant standards of good thinking. One may solve a problem in a critical or an uncritical manner. So, problem solving, decision making, etc., are best seen as arenas in which critical thinking should take place rather than as other kinds of thinking to be contrasted with critical thinking. Critical thinking draws from rationality and reasonableness as fundamental concepts (Scheffler, 1982). However, critical thinking is considered not only an element of rationality but an aspect which co-exists with it (Siegel, 1997). As such, critical thinking may be considered an educational cognate of rationality since it emphasizes both on beliefs and actions (p. 2). By this definition alone, we can consider the critical thinker as an individual who is motivated by reasons both in thought and action. Siegels reasons conception consists of two components: reason assessment and critical spirit; the former deals with the epistemic realm of reasons while the latter focuses on the motivational realm. This theory merits additional discussion. The two-component theory of critical thinking 1. The reason assessment component Siegel considers the critical thinker as an individual possessing the skill and ability to evaluate reasons and arguments using logical or epistemic standards. Siegel (Reason and Education, 1997) quoted Schefflers view that the critical thinker is not just being moved by reasonsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ by by appropriate reasons (p. 20). What this means is that a critical thinker takes it within himself or herself the epistemic responsibility for this thoughts. To be appropriately moved by good reasons is to consciously accept and appreciate the importance of having evidential force to justify thought and actions. In determining what standards are considered meritous, Scheffler (as cited in Siegel, Reason and Education, 1997) said: However, what reasons are appropriate is not fixed once and for ever. It depends on principles which themselves are the result of evolving traditions and may be different for various domains. There are no fixed foundations. The most fundamental presupposition underlying Schefflers epistemology and philosophy of education is the possibility of rational evaluation of principles of rationality. (p. 21) While the acceptability of reasons is not fixed, Schefflers (1973) epistemology of rationality warrant reasons to be consistent, impartial, and non-arbitrary. Critical thinking acknowledges that universal and objective principles have a binding force, but subject to evaluation. The principle-based character of critical thinking is what gives it its normative character. Critical thinking is not merely a cognitive mental process but a mental process that meets epistemic criteria, separated by good and bad reasons. An individual who thinks critically is one who is able to evaluate reasons and ascertain whether prospective reasons are good or bad based on their evidential force and in light of standards or criteria. Siegel (1988, 1997) and other theorists who support critical thinking categorized the principle of reasons of assessment into 1) general (subject-neutral), 2) principles (context-bound) and 3) subject-specific. There are debates on whether reasons assessment should be based on the generalist or the specifist view and to what extent reasons can be considered general or specific. As far as Siegel is concerned, the subject-specific criteria overlook the blurring of boundaries between genres and must be debunked. Siegel proposes that while there may be different criteria, the epistemologies operating are more or less similar. The more significant consideration for Siegel is how beliefs are justified: based on good reasons and supported by universal but fallible standards. This could be interpreted as generalist or a form of contextualism because Siegel supports the identification of good reasons across a range of contexts. Siegel (1997) elaborates: We are entitled to regard these various criteria as appropriate criteria of reason assessment, and to appeal to them in order to establish or determine the goodness of putative reasons, only because they are sanctioned by a common epistemology: a theoretical understanding of the nature of reasons, according to which putative criteria are recognizable as appropriate criteria of reason assessment. (p. 32) The point Siegel tries to make is that although various groups may have their own standards to judge whether reasons are good or bad, they are still governed by common epistemology for justification across different contexts. Furthermore, one question is if emotions are relevant to reasons assessment. Scheffler (2010) described the role of emotions in reasoning, showing how the rational passions contribute to critical thinking. Inquiry is not a dispassionate activity, disassociated from emotion. Rather, people can be very emotionally committed to the search for truth and care passionately that the outcome of an inquiry be the best justified. Such rational passions as love of truth, repugnance of distortion and evasion, and respect for the arguments of others as well as emotions such as curiosity, surprise and the joy of verification (Scheffler 1991) all play a significant role in inquiry, and educational efforts should be directed to their development. In addition, emotions play an important role in rational assessment in several ways. One way is by constraining and directing attention and rendering salient certain aspects of our experience. This likely has to do with connections established in the past between certain emotions and rational assessments. Such emotions can provide useful cues for future assessments, but their adequacy must be assessed through rational criteria. 2. The critical spirit component Because critical thinking is, in our view, thinking in such a way as to fulfill relevant standards, it is the standards of good thinking that provide the criteria for determining what attributes are important for critical thinkers. If an attribute is required by persons in order to fulfill a standard of good thinking, or if it will significantly increase the chances that their thinking will fulfill such standards, it can legitimately be regarded as an attribute that should be fostered in a critical thinker. Having the intellectual resources necessary for critical thinking does not, by itself, make one a critical thinker. One must also have certain commitments, attitudes or habits of mind that dispose himor her to use these resources to fulfill relevant standards and principles of good thinking. Moreover, as Siegel (1988: 9) points out, the critical thinkers tendency to ful ® l the standards and principles of good thinking cannot be mindless or simply the result of habituation. Rather, it must be based on a recognition of the value of critical thinking, i.e. its importance in fostering true belief and responsible action. Siegel recognizes that while reason assessment is a necessary condition for critical thinking, it is not a sufficient one. For example, a critical thinker may be equipped with the skill to evaluate reasons but not be predisposed to use it. Moreover, it is not enough that a critical thinker is capable of assessing the probative force of reasons; the critical thinker should also be inclined to seek out good reasons and disposed to question whether or not candidate reasons fit epistemological criteria. Hence, for a person to become a critical thinker, he or she must be able to habitually engage in reason assessment. In addition, a person must also have a complexity of attitudes, dispositions, character traits, and habits of mind or what Siegel refers to as the critical spirit. Siegels conception of the critical spirit means that critical thought is not a product merely of skill but also of character and motivation. The critical thinker then not only values the use of good reasons and evidentiary power in judgment or deliberation, he or she must also be willing and motivated to evaluate those reasons based on consistent, impartial and non-arbitrary criteria. In other words, the critical spirit is the life force of reasons. The critical spirit motivates and guides a critical thinker in action and belief-formation. Siegel (1997) considers that having reason assessment ability as well as the critical spirit are significant are individually and jointly sufficient requirements for a person to become a critical thinker.   In defense of the critical spirit component, Siegel (1997) enumerates some of the traits that may figure into a complex of dispositions, attitudes, habits of mind, and character traits (p. 35) found in the critical thinker: dispositions to seek reasons and evidence in making judgmentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦; respect for the importance of reasoned judgment and for truthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦; a rejection of partiality, arbitrariness, special pleading, wishful thinking, and other obstacles to the proper exercise of reason assessment and reason judgment; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦habits of reason seeking and evaluatingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, engaging in the fairminded and non-self-interested consideration of such reasons.  Ã‚  (pp. 35-36) On the other hand, Scheffler (2010) also describes the critical thinker as disposed to the following traits: objectivity, consistency, intense aversion to contradiction, repugnance of error, disgust at evasion, love of reason, love of truth, and admiration of theoretical achievement. That character is indispensable in the formation of the critical thinker has been criticized (Missimer, 1990). The so-called character view espoused by Siegel is said to run in contradiction to the contributions of the worlds greatest thinkers. The intellectual greats such as Marx, Rousseau, Bacon, Freud, Russell, Newton, and Feynmann lacked many of the traits which the character view holds to be necessary for critical thinking. Marx was considered anti-Semitic; Newton was averse to criticism of his work; Rousseau and Fenymann were venal and rude to people who espoused incorrect ideas; Freud was a hothead; and Russell lied about his support for the U.S. nuclear program (Missimer, 1990, pp. 146-147). Accordingly, Siegels definition would not make the greatest intellectuals history has ever known critical thinkers. Critical thinking as identity constitution and autonomy Because critical thinking is fundamental educational ideal, Siegel (1997) considers it crucial in identity constitution. Critical thinking develops not only out of honing reasoning ability but also cultivating a motivational complex to create character disposed to the critical spirit. Character traits are fostered which constitute the critical spirit component, making up the traits of a particular type of person or identity. Thus, developing critical thinking entails no less than the formation of a certain identity. In the context of education, young people must be taught not only how to think critically, but more importantly, how to be critical thinkers. Therefore, making critical thinking a constitutive ideal is to propose for educational programs which focus on character-formation in support of critical thinking. Equally important to the concept of critical thinking is autonomy. Aside from critical thinking being coexisting with rationality, autonomy also figures into the same educational ideal. Siegel (1988) considered the importance of autonomy: If we accept critical thinking as a fundamental educational ideal, we explicitly acknowledge the desirability of the attainment by students of self-sufficiency and autonomy . . . The critical thinker must be autonomous-that is, free to act and judge independently of external constraint, on the basis of her own reasoned appraisal of the matter at hand. (p. 54) Autonomy is a state characterized by self-government. Similar to critical thinking, autonomy is also identity-constitutive in the sense that it makes up a certain type of person. Educators should strive in order to develop students who are autonomous agents. Autonomy is necessarily aligned with rationality: This aspect of the educational ideal of rationality aligns it with the complementary ideal of autonomy , since a rational person will also be an autonomous one, capable of judging for herself the justifiedness of candidate beliefs and the legitimacy of candidate values. (p. 56) An autonomous person is one who makes his or her own choices by evaluating them rationally and critically. Siegel (1988) expresses that choosing is not enough for autonomy to surface. A student must be a competent chooser and not subservient to conditions or standards he or she accepts uncritically. Also, a person can be a proto critical thinker because he or becomes slave to reason without having the necessary motivation to propel critical thought. Autonomy, then, requires not only independence in the execution of the action but also with respect to the motivation behind the action. For autonomy to be present, there must also be autonomy in the feelings, emotions, evaluation, or restructuring of principles. Autonomy must exist not only in relation to the reason assessment component of critical thinking but also on the critical spirit component.

No one knowingly does evil: an essay on the Socratic principle

The contention that no one knowingly does evil is one of the most fundamental principles championed by Socrates. The very essence of this Socratic principle dwells on the assumption that if a man understands very well that such and such acts are wrong or result to evil, or such that if a man is indeed aware in the first place that this action is wrong in the strictest sense of the word, then that man will tend to revert himself away from committing the act. Socrates stalwartly advances his pivotal idea that men in general cannot, in any conceivable manner, transform man into being fully wise or utterly foolish.Rather, men are inclinedto perform actions at an unfixed and random way, with no great propensity to be inclined to do more evil or to do more good. Consequently, an inexhaustible capability for performing either good or bad conducts is what men do not fundamentally possess. Another principal feature of Socrates’ thoughts is his claim that knowledge is directly associate d to that which is good and that ignorance is tied to that which is evil. Thus, it can be clearly observed that by claiming that no one knowingly does evil what is being meant is that to know and understand one’s actions is to understand that which has goodness.Since ignorance is significantly affixed to evil, Socrates observes, then, that no one knowingly does evil. In instances where man acts, it is immaterial for one to put great emphasis on the goodness or evilness of the action itself. What one should all the more consider is whether such actions are either within the proximity of being just or unjust and not necessarily that of being good or evil. In general, what Socrates is trying to point out is that the very causes of evil acts can ultimately be drawn from ignorance. For example, revulsion of one person to another person results from misapprehension, from ignorance of the related facts.Further, the Socratic assertion that no one knowingly does evil refutes normal re lativism for a few several points. Given such Socratic principle, it implies that it applies to all men who have the innate capacity to act. Likewise, to assert that no one knowingly does evil is to assert as well the claim that human beings by nature cannot be consciously aware that they are doing evil and that, instead, they assume that they are acting in order to amplify pleasure. The term â€Å"no one† in the phrase obviously refutes any relative conception of the principle since â€Å"no one† refers to that which is universal.To have relative views, then, on what actions count as evil and good is to essentially refute the claim that no one does evil voluntarily and willingly, and vice versa. Several contemporary counter-examples can be given to attempt at refuting the Socratic principle. Apparently, suicide, terrorism and sadism all have one thing in common in the context of Socrates’ principle no one knowingly does evil: they purport to exemplify cases whe rein human beings appear to be capable of doing evil with their knowing.All these three may in fact provide crucial grounds for claiming that men have the potential and the actual capacity to inflict harm and do evil while they are fully aware of these actions. However, we might go on to argue that men in these instances are ignorant of the good. Yet, even if they are ignorant of the good, it does not necessarily follow that they know sadism, suicide and terrorism as evil deeds for the fact that no one identifies what is good without actually noting those which are evil or have the actions which have the propensity to result in evil.Thus, these actions could not have been evil in the first place if one has no sense of what it is that is deemed to be good. It might be held valid and true that people who engage themselves in these actions have a leaning towards the evil as others may view them to be, but nevertheless these very people who are a part of the actions are ignorant of the evil that they might have been doing. This is pegged on the presupposition that men have the mental framework that the things they do are aimed at obtaining that which incites pleasure.For the most part of the claims of Socrates, there are hardly any strong refutations which might prove to be callous enough to dismantle the ancient philosopher’s arguments. There is a deep sensibility in Socrates’ dialogues with his fellowmen in the Apology as with the other parts of Plato’s Republic such that, with the Socratic method of inquiry, one arrives at an understanding about one’s little knowledge, that much is left to be understood and that only through a removal of one’s ignorance can one begin to achieve genuine knowledge.

Als aE Essay Writing - 6876 Words

Understanding How to Teach Paragraph and Essay Writing MR. REJULIOS M. VILLENES Instructional Manager, Lopez West District Division Enhancement Training of ALS Coordinators and Mobile Teachers Ouans Farm, Lucena City 13 November 2011 PARADIGM ON TEACHING PARAGRAPH WRITING TO ALS LEARNERS Teaching Paragraph Writing Effectively Where to Start and When to Teach Diagnosing Learner’s Difficulties ïÆ' ¼ Understanding Our Learners ïÆ' ¼ Psychological Philosophical Factors ïÆ' ¼ Data Analysis and Problem Intercession ïÆ' ¼ Going Back to Basics What to Teach Writing Paragraph, ALS AE Essay Writing ïÆ' ¼ Understanding a Paragraph and an Essay ïÆ' ¼ Constructing and Forming Paragraph ïÆ' ¼ Making Paragraphs an Essay ïÆ' ¼ Writing with Discipline How to Teach and Assess 1.†¦show more content†¦Ã¯â€š § Constructivism ïÆ'Ëœ Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience. ïÆ'Ëœ Learning takes place through giving instructions. paragraph writing †¢ rmv111311 WHERE TO START AND WHEN TO TEACH DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES 2. Psychological and Philosophical Factors ï‚ § Progressivism ïÆ'Ëœ Emphasizes â€Å"change† and â€Å"growth† ïÆ'Ëœ Focuses on the learner as a whole rather than of the teacher ï‚ § Essentialism ïÆ'Ëœ Concerns with the fundamental of education skill and knowledge ïÆ'Ëœ Focuses on the â€Å"basics† – reading, writing, speaking and arithmetic paragraph writing †¢ rmv111311 WHERE TO START AND WHEN TO TEACH DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES 3. Data Analysis and Problem Intercession ï‚ § Recording the Data for Analysis and Intervention ï‚ § Planning for Intercession (Topics to be discussed as a Prerequisite in Writing an Essay) paragraph writing †¢ rmv111311 WHERE TO START AND WHEN TO TEACH DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES 4. Going Back to Basics ï‚ § Teaching the Prerequisites of Making a Paragraph ïÆ'Ëœ Reading and writing skills ïÆ'Ëœ Phoneme, morpheme, clause, syntax, punctuations paragraph writing †¢ rmv111311 PARADIGM ON TEACHING PARAGRAPH WRITING TO ALS LEARNERS Teaching Paragraph Writing Effectively Where to Start and When to Teach Diagnosing Learner’s Difficulties ïÆ' ¼ Understanding Our Learners ïÆ' ¼ Psychological Philosophical Factors ïÆ' ¼ Data Analysis and ProblemShow MoreRelatedEssay on How To Write Using the APA Writing Style1597 Words   |  7 Pages The APA writing style is most commonly used to cite sources for psychology, education, and social sciences and is also the official writing style of the American Psychological Association. The General APA Organizational Guidelines are basic guidelines that explain how to write a research paper in the APA format. 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What Is White-Nose Syndrome in Bats

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an emerging disease affecting North American bats. The condition gets its name for the appearance of the white fungal growth found around the noses and wings of affected hibernating bats. The fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), formerly named Geomyces destructans, colonizes bat wing skin, leading to disease. To date, millions of bats in the United States and Canada have died from white-nose syndrome, placing some species at risk of extinction. There is no known treatment for the disorder and preventative measures to date have been ineffective. Key Takeaways: White-nose Syndrome White-nose syndrome is a fatal disease infecting North American bats. It gets its name from the white fungal growth seen on muzzles and wings of infected hibernating bats.The infection depletes the animals fat reserves, preventing the bat from surviving winter hibernation.There is no known preventative measure or cure for white-nose syndrome, and over 90% of infected bats die, which has led to a bat colony collapse throughout eastern North America.Bats are significant to the environment because they control insects, pollinate plants, and disperse seeds. White-nose syndrome significantly disrupts the ecosystem. White-Nose Bat Syndrome The earliest documented case of white-nose syndrome comes from a photograph of a bat taken in Schoharie County, New York in 2006. By 2017, at least fifteen bat species had been affected, including four endangered or threatened species. The disease rapidly spread to 33 U.S. states and 7 Canadian provinces (2018). While most cases have been documented in eastern North America, a little brown bat was found to be infected in Washington state in 2016. Originally, the fungal pathogen was identified as Geomyces destructans, but it was later reclassified as the related species Pseudogymnoascus destructans. The fungus is a psychrophile or cold-loving organism that prefers temperatures between 39–59  Ã‚ °F and stops growing when temperatures exceed 68  Ã‚ °F. Little brown bat with white-nose syndrome in Greeley Mine, Vermont, March 26, 2009. Marvin Moriarty/USFWS The fungus spreads from direct contact between bats or between bats and infected surfaces. The white growth becomes apparent late in the winter hibernation season. Pseudogymnoascus destructans infects the epidermis of the bats wings, disrupting the animals metabolism. Affected bats suffer dehydration, body fat loss, and wing scarring. The cause of death is usually starvation, as infection depletes a bats winter fat reserves. Bats that survive the winter may suffer wing damage and become unable to find food. Pseudogymnoascus destructans occurs in Europe, but European bats dont get white-nose syndrome. The fungus is an invasive species in North America, where bats have not developed an immune response. No treatment or preventative measure for white-nose syndrome has been found. An infection decimates a colony, killing over 90% of the bats. In 2012, scientists estimated between 5.7 to 6.7 million bats had succumbed to the disease. Bat numbers have collapsed in affected areas. Can White-Nose Syndrome Affect Humans? Humans cannot contract white-nose syndrome and appear completely unaffected by the fungus. However, its possible people can carry the pathogen from an infected cave on shoes, clothing, or gear. The bat disease indirectly affects people because bats are important for insect control, pollination, and seed dispersal. The collapse of bat colonies forces farmers to apply insecticides to control pests. How to Prevent the Spread of White-Nose Syndrome Starting in 2009, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) began closing infected caves to minimize the risk of cavers spreading the fungus. When people visit caves that may contain bats, the USFWS recommends people wear clothing and use gear that has never been in a cave. Upon leaving a cave, items may be decontaminated by immersion in hot (140  Ã‚ °F)  water for 20 minutes. If you observe hibernating bats in a cave, the best course of action is to leave immediately. Disturbing bats, even if they are not infected, raises their metabolism and depletes fat reserves, putting them at risk of not surviving the season. Distribution of white nose syndrome in North America in 2018. Endwebb   Sources Blehert DS, Hicks AC, Behr M, Meteyer CU, Berlowski-Zier BM, Buckles EL, Coleman JT, Darling SR, Gargas A, Niver R, Okoniewski JC, Rudd RJ, Stone WB (January 2009). Bat white-nose syndrome: an emerging fungal pathogen?. Science. 323 (5911): 227. doi:10.1126/science.1163874Frick WF, Pollock JF, Hicks AC, Langwig KE, Reynolds DS, Turner GG, Butchkoski CM, Kunz TH (August 2010). An emerging disease causes regional population collapse of a common North American bat species. Science. 329 (5992): 679–82. doi:10.1126/science.1188594Langwig KE, Frick WF, Bried JT, Hicks AC, Kunz TH, Kilpatrick AM (September 2012). Sociality, density-dependence and microclimates determine the persistence of populations suffering from a novel fungal disease, white-nose syndrome. Ecology Letters. 15 (9): 1050–7. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01829.xLindner DL, Gargas A, Lorch JM, Banik MT, Glaeser J, Kunz TH, Blehert DS (2011). DNA-based detection of the fungal pathogen Geomyces destructans in soil s from bat hibernacula. Mycologia. 103 (2): 241–6. doi:10.3852/10-262Warnecke L, Turner JM, Bollinger TK, Lorch JM, Misra V, Cryan PM, Wibbelt G, Blehert DS, et al. (May 2012). Inoculation of bats with European Geomyces destructans supports the novel pathogen hypothesis for the origin of white-nose syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (18): 6999–7003. doi:10.1073/pnas.1200374109